The arrival of Iron production was revolutionary. The wrought Iron and its procurement were first established in 3rd millennium BC, in the territory of Anatolia and the later the Hittite Empire. Even before its demise in the Late Bronze age, individual pieces traveled as gifts and merchandise across the Mediterranean. After the Late Bronze Age collapse, the knowledge of Iron metallurgy was adopted by the Hittite successor states: Phrygia and Lydia, and from there it spread across the Mediterranean and Europe. At the passage from the Bronze Age into the Iron age, around 10th century BC, first iron objects already made their way into central Europe, through trade routes with the Mediterranean civilizations. These were mostly examples of jewelry and individual pieces of weapon. In the 8th century, objects made from iron were already dominating the Hallstatt societies and accepted as the best material for the weapon production. Iron didn’t completely replace bronze. People exploited both resources and necessary ore deposits. Sites rich in iron ore enabled development of metallurgy and prosperity of European cultures beyond the more famous Mediterranean civilizations of Greece, Phoenicians and Etruscans. While iron was more durable and harder than previous materials, it also required more knowledge time to process. Ironworking also required large amounts of good quality wood and charcoal, leading to large-scale forest clearings and changes in the landscape. Archeologists found traces of smelting in most large settlement centers. It was this easy access to the iron ore that made the mines mostly unnecessary, and the close vicinity of settlements to rich iron deposits provided another potential advantage over rival settlements. The smelting could last the entire day, but due to the relatively low temperatures, only a couple of kilograms of malleable iron bloom could be recovered, as most iron remained in the waste slag. The bloom would be of high enough quality to be hammered into semi-finished products. The entire process of producing iron was a complex procedure which was mastered by only a few individuals, who probably shared their knowledge and secrets only to their successors or a small circle. The transition into the Iron Age wasn’t sudden. For example: The votive offering of weapons by the bodies of water reflect the Bronze Age customs, while the materials and weapon designs evolved in the image of the Iron age. Additionally, swords of the same design, but different materials, were found. Hallstatt culture spread across a vast area of Central Europe and marks the early Iron age in the region. It was named after the archeological site in present-day Austria, where a large settlement thrived through trade of metallic products and rock salt. After the 7th century BC, iron axes and spears came to dominate the area. Battle equipment, from weapons to armor, had to be both an effective combat implement, as well as a symbol of power and prestige. Throughout the era, spearheads and axes got longer, thanks to the sturdier iron that didn’t bend as easy as bronze. Spearheads could reach even up to 1 meter in length. Both axes and spears could be decorated with different ribs or inlaid with bronze or even gold. The high-standing dignitaries also wore a helmet, a wooden shield and an armor. Decorated belts also showcase their status and achievements. Even more prominent warriors were buried with pieces of figural depictions, like situlae. The equipment of warriors at the transition from 7th to 5th century BC was fairly identical, almost standardized. Spears and axes continued to be the most common weapons of Hallstatt warriors across different regions. Archers too were a part of Early Iron age armies, and were able to achieve a very high status. Hunting with bow and arrow was reserved for higher ranking nobility. Some archers even adopted equipment of the raiding Scythians, using their trilobate arrows themselves. Like with axes, the evolution of Early iron age warriors can be seen through helmets. The era of Hallstatt princes and warriors would last until the arrival of Celts and the La Tèneculture in the last 5 centuries BC. Sources: https://docs.google.com/document/d/1mnK9tpEvz9UgeVWuUh8fPFaoJ3QNLQOYiG7Q2jz1zZI/edit?usp=sharing I hope you learned something new in this video. If you want to see more history videos, feel free to like and subscribe... you know how YouTube works. ? Learn more about the history in the heart of Europe: https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLj-ONVAJL4HEcG3BnigOO6Zuh0iL28-mU Edited with Vegas Pro Edit 19 #history #europe #ironage #archaeology #ancienthistory ... https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fS5V4SFai4s

Watch the full video here: ? https://youtu.be/6hU1-GDdqfQ The lack of archaeological finds suggests the early versions of Celtic armor seem to have been made of perishable materials like leather, linen, felt and hemp. What we have are depictions and statues that indicate that their armor resembled the classical style of so-called “yoke and tube” consisting of cylindrical body, shoulder flaps and a skirt-like structure. To this was also added a cape that protected the rear and neck. The continuous evolution of a warrior’s equipment led to Celts adopting chainmail armor, which consisted of thousands of interlocking metal rings that better protected against slashes and cuts. Such pieces usually weighed between 10 and 20 kg, depending on the number and thickness of rings. A warrior had to wear additional layers of felt or leather below the mail, cushioning the weight, preventing rubbing and providing additional protection against thrusting and blunt weapons. Due to the high cost of production and material, such armor was limited to the most prominent warriors and nobles. Greek historian Polybius describes the tribes of Insubri and Boii going to battle against Rome, dressed in light coats and trousers, while the Gaesati warriors faced their enemy naked, wearing nothing but their weapons. Sources: https://docs.google.com/document/d/1mnK9tpEvz9UgeVWuUh8fPFaoJ3QNLQOYiG7Q2jz1zZI/edit?usp=sharing I hope you learn something new in this video. If you want to see more history videos, feel free to like and subscribe... you know how YouTube works. ? Learn more about the history in the heart of Europe: https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLj-ONVAJL4HEcG3BnigOO6Zuh0iL28-mU Edited with Vegas Pro Edit 19 #history #celts #archeology #ironage #shorts ... https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=olzAX1rBT18

With the accession of emperor Diocletian, we can officially start to talk about the Late Roman Empire. Following the turbulent time that was the Crisis of the Third Century, the following era brought much-needed stability by Diocletian and his reforms. This included the split of the Roman state between four rulers and the establishment of the tetrarchy. Despite the clear hierarchy within the quartet according to seniority, the system’s propaganda was designed to give the appearance of a unified body that would be further legitimized by divine heritage. Within the tetrarchy, the state legislation was unified, as laws were put forth in the name of all four rulers. In the same manner, military victories of each ruler were victories of the whole group. But each ruler was still assigned his own territory, in which he was the supreme military commander and judge. They had at their disposal their own separate treasuries, named their own officers and dignitaries, and maintained their own court in one of the capitals of their territories. At first, the system seemed to work. The four emperors continued to cooperate, and with the enlarged army they achieved great military successes against both external and internal threats. The further division of provinces and the separation of military and civil administrations made new usurpations practically impossible. This however came at the cost of increased taxes and a more ruthless state apparatus, which put a heavy pressure on ordinary citizens, craftsmen, traders and so on. Under Diocletian, Christians were also hunted with renewed fervor, though not all emperors prioritized it, After another decade of seemingly-stable government, the differences between the rulers, fed by their personal ambition and in anticipation of Diocletian's planned retirement, grew into disagreements, and even rivalries. Consequently, the borders between the four territories, which were supposed to be only of administrative nature, became more solid, political borders. A period of tense politicking, scheming and power-plays followed, but the final push over the edge was caused by the death of Constantius and the consequent choosing and rearranging the new members of the tetrarchy. This series of events brought the empire into another civil war. This was not resolved until Diocletian was called from retirement The latest, 4th attempt at tetrarchy also failed soon after, as there were once again more powerful candidates than there were spots available in the tetrarchy. A new civil war erupted, though it was really a continuation of the previous one. In its aftermath, two men stood on top: Constantine as the emperor in the west, while Licinius became the emperor in the east. The two also agreed on the unified state policy towards religion and a tolerant, even positive view of Christianity, though Licinius would later distance himself from it. This was a big shift in the era and for the entire empire: From Diocletian’s persecution of Christians, to Constantine’s tolerant policy that was already started by his father. The civil war and its conclusion meant the overall failure of the tetrarchy as a system of government, in favor of a dynastical system. Constantine defeated Licinius and ordered building a new city at Byzantium that would bear his name: Constantinople. By the spring, he had both Licinius and his son executed and he became the sole emperor of the Roman empire without any challengers. Constantine became the first Christian emperor of Rome, but after him, Rome would continue to be plagued by internal strife and external threats. Timestamps: 0:00 - Rise of Diocletian 1:23 - Tetrarchy - Rule of Four 3:42 - Rivalries and Civil Wars Between the Emperors 5:25 - Rise of Licinius and Constantine 7:46 - Constantine defeats Licinius and the The Rise of Christianity 10:12 - Constantine's Death and Aftermath I hope you learned something new in this video. If you want to see more history videos, feel free to like and subscribe... You know how YouTube works. ? Sources: https://docs.google.com/document/d/1mnK9tpEvz9UgeVWuUh8fPFaoJ3QNLQOYiG7Q2jz1zZI/edit?usp=sharing Next Video - Rise of Emperor Augustus https://youtu.be/UsXW10Kcvok Learn more about the history in the heart of Europe: https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLj-ONVAJL4HEcG3BnigOO6Zuh0iL28-mU Edited with Vegas Pro Edit 21 #history #ancienthistory #romanempire #AncientRome #RomanHistory #historyofeurope ... https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m0W3kR72RoY

Watch the full video here: ? https://youtu.be/9pTZfAK3u7c Axes went through an interesting evolution through prehistory. People have always wanted to keep the axehead attached to the hats as firmly as possible. Already in the Neolithic, the method of attaching the stone ax head to the rod was mostly focused on creating a hole through the head and attaching it that way, creating shaft-hole axes. Most modern day axes still work on this principle. However, during the bronze age, such axes were mostly absent throughout the continent. Instead, different designs were used, first axe with flanges, then winged axes with medial wings and winged axes with butt wings, which were typical at the transition into the iron age. In addition to those, bronze socketed axes were also used. These spread to central Europe from the east. They had a tubular socket into which the haft was inserted and secured with straps, which passed through the eye on the side. While they still did the job, such designs are less practical and effective than the, so their use was not a result of improved engineering, but rather had cultural motives. The bronze winged axes of the eastern alps often bear incised markings. While it would be easy to assume these are the first examples of a written language in the area, opinions of archeologists differ. Some scholars believe them to be workshop marks, while others that they could be royal inscriptions, like those in the eastern Mediterranean, or votive inscriptions of the axes offered in sanctuaries. The context of such a writing system therefore remains open. The finds of sickles and socketed axes in central Europe indicate connections with the east, the wider Pannonian plain, while winged axes were more typical towards the alps and northern Apennine peninsula. Sources: https://docs.google.com/document/d/1mnK9tpEvz9UgeVWuUh8fPFaoJ3QNLQOYiG7Q2jz1zZI/edit?usp=sharing I hope you learn something new in this video. If you want to see more history videos, feel free to like and subscribe... you know how YouTube works. ? Learn more about the history in the heart of Europe: https://youtube.com/playlist?list=PLj-ONVAJL4HEcG3BnigOO6Zuh0iL28-mU Edited with Vegas Pro Edit 19 #history #europe #archeology #bronzeage #shorts ... https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2E6Gny9ipBk