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Results - PART 3
Lagoon Environments Around the World Online Course
https://giladjames.com
Section: Pollution Issues in Coastal Lagoons in the Gulf of Mexico
Lesson: Results - PART 3
Lagoon Environments Around the World.
This course is brought to you by Gilad James Mystery School. Learn more at Gilad James.com.
Introduction
One of the great problems of the coastal zone of the Gulf of Mexico is the diverse and significant water load of the different anthropogenic activities which have not taken into account the volume that must be conserved for the ecological services for which have been lost atmospheres of diverse biological wealth. The coastal flood plains in the Gulf, associated with coastal zones on the border with the terrestrial zone and the sea, are subject to flooding by rainfall, excess fluvial contribution that makeup dikes and channels but that play important roles in the coastal landscape and they contribute to the high production of the coastal zone, however; they run the risk of various deteriorations with or without recovery .
The coastal zone associated with rivers, is interconnected by an extensive network of wetlands and floodplains temporary and perennial that allow the retention of water, act as filters, deposits and source for various substances and re the habitat of plant species adapted to these conditions and fauna associated with this vegetation both emerging and submerged. The main problems that lagoons located within or near urban areas have are eutrophication, siltation caused almost always by inadequate management of the urban basin and lack of control of wastewater inlets, but in particular agriculture refuses. The Gulf of Mexico is the ninth largest body of water in the world, with five Mexican states to the west. Due to its physical and chemical characteristics, it is a very diverse internal sea as a result of its latitudinal location; from tropical, subtropical to temperate, with climates classified as “dry” (spring), rainy (summer, autumn) and northern (winter). The coastal lagoons and estuaries of the Gulf of Mexico have been characterized environmentally taking into account: their location, shape, size, runoff and tributary streams, number and size of the mouths of connection with the sea, their behavior throughout the year, their bathymetry, internal currents, the type of sediment they receive from the watershed to which they are associated, gases, dissolved solids or salinity and primary productivity, among others. Based on the foregoing, each coastal lagoon and estuary differs in their mentioned characteristics. Given the high number of coastal systems of the Gulf, the present work has the objective of choosing four coastal lagoons ( ) to exemplify their physicochemical natural variations in space and time considering their geographic location two; as well as the level metals, hydrocarbons, and pesticides. This lecture is comprised: a brief description of a four coastal lagoon of the Gulf of Mexico chosen in this study, as well as of the incorporation of previously published information with the methods used to obtain data; the presentation of the results and the consequent discussion; and brief comparison with other lagoons of the coastal region; and the most outstanding conclusion.
Location of main coastal lagoons in the Gulf of Mexico.
#lagoon #environments #around #the #world
...
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1pWdkCfEJ1w
https://giladjames.com
Section: Pollution Issues in Coastal Lagoons in the Gulf of Mexico
Lesson: Results - PART 3
Lagoon Environments Around the World.
This course is brought to you by Gilad James Mystery School. Learn more at Gilad James.com.
Introduction
One of the great problems of the coastal zone of the Gulf of Mexico is the diverse and significant water load of the different anthropogenic activities which have not taken into account the volume that must be conserved for the ecological services for which have been lost atmospheres of diverse biological wealth. The coastal flood plains in the Gulf, associated with coastal zones on the border with the terrestrial zone and the sea, are subject to flooding by rainfall, excess fluvial contribution that makeup dikes and channels but that play important roles in the coastal landscape and they contribute to the high production of the coastal zone, however; they run the risk of various deteriorations with or without recovery .
The coastal zone associated with rivers, is interconnected by an extensive network of wetlands and floodplains temporary and perennial that allow the retention of water, act as filters, deposits and source for various substances and re the habitat of plant species adapted to these conditions and fauna associated with this vegetation both emerging and submerged. The main problems that lagoons located within or near urban areas have are eutrophication, siltation caused almost always by inadequate management of the urban basin and lack of control of wastewater inlets, but in particular agriculture refuses. The Gulf of Mexico is the ninth largest body of water in the world, with five Mexican states to the west. Due to its physical and chemical characteristics, it is a very diverse internal sea as a result of its latitudinal location; from tropical, subtropical to temperate, with climates classified as “dry” (spring), rainy (summer, autumn) and northern (winter). The coastal lagoons and estuaries of the Gulf of Mexico have been characterized environmentally taking into account: their location, shape, size, runoff and tributary streams, number and size of the mouths of connection with the sea, their behavior throughout the year, their bathymetry, internal currents, the type of sediment they receive from the watershed to which they are associated, gases, dissolved solids or salinity and primary productivity, among others. Based on the foregoing, each coastal lagoon and estuary differs in their mentioned characteristics. Given the high number of coastal systems of the Gulf, the present work has the objective of choosing four coastal lagoons ( ) to exemplify their physicochemical natural variations in space and time considering their geographic location two; as well as the level metals, hydrocarbons, and pesticides. This lecture is comprised: a brief description of a four coastal lagoon of the Gulf of Mexico chosen in this study, as well as of the incorporation of previously published information with the methods used to obtain data; the presentation of the results and the consequent discussion; and brief comparison with other lagoons of the coastal region; and the most outstanding conclusion.
Location of main coastal lagoons in the Gulf of Mexico.
#lagoon #environments #around #the #world
...
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1pWdkCfEJ1w
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STUDY
study-area-part-2-2
Estuary Online Course
https://giladjames.com
Section: Coupling Watersheds, Estuaries and Regional Oceanography through Numerical Modelling in the Western Iberia: Thermohaline Flux Variability at the Ocean-Estuary Interface
Lesson: Study area - PART 2
Estuary.
This course is brought to you by Gilad James Mystery School. Learn more at Gilad James.com.
Introduction
In Ref. , an estuary is defined as ‘a semi-enclosed coastal body of water, which has a free connection with the open sea, and within which sea water is measurably diluted with freshwater derived from land drainage’. On its way to the open ocean, fresh water carried by rivers is mixed with the saltier ocean water aided mainly by the action of tides and atmospheric forces. The salinity of the estuarine fluxes that are incorporated in the near ocean depend on several factors including the estuary tidal prism and magnitude of river run-off. While the size of the tidal prism is controlled by the morphodynamics of each particular area, the fresh water inputs are controlled by natural factors such as rainfall and human fresh water management upstream the river mouth, i.e. water irrigation, storage for electricity and deviation to other watersheds. The natural and man-made variability of the fresh water volume and properties is a constraint to characterise the estuarine waters that flow from estuaries to the open ocean due to the lack of permanent monitoring stations. This characterisation is critical to understand their influence in coastal hydrodynamics and ecological processes.
From the European environmental legislation perspective, estuaries are typically regarded as transitional waters in the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD, Directive 2000/60/EC) and therefore may mostly fall outside the scope of EU Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD, Directive 2008/56/EC). However, estuaries may have estuarine plumes which extend beyond transitional waters limit, 1 nautical mile from baseline, into coastal waters or beyond; in these cases, the estuarine habitat would fall within the scope of MSFD. For this reason, the exclusion of estuaries and other transitional waters from the MSFD has been questioned. In any case, though WFD requires the monitoring of several biological and chemical elements for the establishment of reference conditions in terms of water quality, long-term continuous monitoring with high temporal resolution are rarely deployed in estuaries and, when deployed, some sensors have limited capabilities for longstanding observations. For this reason, numerical models are able to support in situmonitoring by completing the datasets spatially and temporally and by contrasting the ambiguous observed values. Also numerical models can assist to describe the transitional waters including the extension and influence of the estuarine plumes in the near ocean.
In this lecture, the tidal prism and estuarine fluxes will be characterised with the aid of numerical models and the existing monitoring stations from the main Portuguese estuaries. This work also aims to describe in more detail the estuarine component of the methodology to couple watersheds, estuaries and regional oceans through numerical modelling for Western Iberia .
#estuary
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BO9WdiQJoCw
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Geographic Information Systems and Science Online Course
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Section: Evaluation of Nursing Facility Locations Using the Specialization Coefficient of the Population Aging Rate
Lesson: Related work
Geographic Information Systems and Science.
This course is brought to you by Gilad James Mystery School. Learn more at Gilad James.com.
Introduction
Information science can be defined as the science that investigates the properties and behavior of information, the forces that govern its flow, and the means of processing it. The process includes the origin, dissemination, collection, organization, storage, retrieval, interpretation, and use of information. Although this view is not consensual, one can state that there are several information sciences and they can be separated into two groups. The first group (e.g., librarianship, journalism, and communication) mainly studies the transfer of information and the second group (e.g., philosophy, sociology, and cognitive sciences, in general) focuses preferably on certain aspects of information transfer.
Nonetheless, it is not easy to think of a science in which at least one of its study objects does not consider the geographic space. However, it is evident that some areas today have appropriated the geographical information more than others have. Assuming that data (geographic or not) is a construction of the knowledge within a certain political, economic, and spatiotemporal context, then the question is how it is possible to set apart the geographical, or in a more broad sense the spatial, context of these data?
Spatial knowledge has long been critically important both in the development of human activities and in the understanding of how humankind interacts with space. The possibility of knowing the geographical location of a phenomenon, to establish relationships with other elements of the territory, to identify spatial patterns, or to make decisions based on their geographical examples of how spatial information and knowledge have over the years a preponderant role in social, political, and economic development.
The geographic information of the world is in a period of exponential development, sustained by the availability of new sensors, imageries, open georeferenced data and social media, and moving devices, allowing to produce new knowledge about that world and empirical geographical phenomena. Almost all the phenomena we face daily assume a territorial expression. Represent, analyze, and know the spatial dimension associated with these phenomena is one of the main challenges faced by the Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
The continuous collection of geographic data of holistic nature and the analysis of its place in territory, i.e., location analytics, allows a more straightforward science that can influence the creation and the use of geographic knowledge. This holistic point of view allows researchers to put questions that before were impossible. Multidisciplinary approaches take along important knowledge about the adoption of system approach to information management.
Just as the information science can be understood as a group, geographical science is a set of sciences interested on physical and/or human geographic processes. Although this definition is consistent with the broad definition of geography, the term should not only be circumscribed to the current school of Geography, but also involving areas such as meteorology, geology, environment, epidemiology, geomarketing, and many others that study the phenomenon’s geographical dimensions. In fact, today, GIS brings together several areas of knowledge. These areas of science influence each other, creating conceptual and technical interfaces such as multidisciplinarity.
Michael Goodchild first coined the designation “Geographic Information Science” in 1992, defining it as the persistent research, consistent with methodical values, of the type and characteristics of the data. This science operates through the techniques, methods, and approaches associated with GIS and seeks to redefine the geographic concepts and their use in the context of GIS. Thus, it becomes clear that the term Geographic Information Sc
#geographic #information #systems #and #science
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0x0hsyqhORo
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THREE
three-dimensional-gravity-inversion-2
Gravity Online Course
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Section: 3D Modeling and Inversion of Gravity Data in Exploration Scale
Lesson: Three-dimensional gravity inversion - PART 1
Gravity.
This course is brought to you by Gilad James Mystery School. Learn more at Gilad James.com.
Introduction
Gravity method is an important geophysical tool for subsurface mapping of the density distributions. The development of high-accuracy instrumentation and stable observation platform since 1980s has made the large scale airborne gravity survey become possible. The interpretation result based on gravity data can be used for mineral and oil exploration. For example, the gravity data has been used to estimate the depth of the sedimentary basin and detect sub-sea basalt which is usually associated with the oil reservoir.
The gravity modeling has its origin back to Newton’s law of universal gravitation developed in 1687, which is equivalent to solving a Poisson’s equation for scalar gravity potential. One can use different approaches to solve this Poisson’s equation, e.g., finite difference or finite element method. However, the most common approach is to solve it in an integral way using Green’s function. In the first section of this lecture, we will review the Poisson’s equation and its integral solution for a general three-dimensional case. The numerical approaches to evaluate the integrals in the solution of the Poisson’s equation will be discussed. For more realistic problems, we also provide an approach of gravity modeling to take into account of complex geometry such as topography.
Conventional gravity inversion is based on discretizing the earth model into a set of rectangular prisms, and considering each prism has a constant density. Given observed gravity and/or gravity gradiometry fields, one is interested to recover the density within each cell. Similar as other geophysical inverse problems, this volumetric inversion of gravity data is an ill-posed problem which is strongly affected by the non-uniqueness and instability. To solve this ill-posed a problem, we will first introduce an objective functional which contains two parts, the misfit functional for least-square fitting of the observed data, and the stabilizer for regularizing the subsurface density distributions. The solutions for solving the minimization problem of this objective functional will then be briefly discussed. Generally, the volumetric gravity inversion produces diffusive images of the subsurface density distribution with very limited depth resolution (strictly speaking, the gravity method, with observation above the earth’s surface, does not have any depth resolution for the subsurface density distribution). One may improve the gravity inversion results by adding more constraints, e.g., logarithmic barrier to constrain upper and lower limits of the density, focusing stabilizer to produce sharper boundaries between the density contrasts, and etc., in the inversion.
A more advanced approach of gravity inversion is to invert for the shape of the anomaly instead of the three-dimensional volumetric density distribution. In certain applications, such as sedimentary basin analysis, it is more interesting to estimate the location of the sediment-basement interface and the shape by assuming that the density distribution of the sediments in vertical direction is known based on some other a priori information such as well logging. To solve this specific problem, the geometric inversion method to recover the depth to basement has been proposed in recent years. These types of methods are mostly based on the discretization of the sedimentary columns or the sediment-basement interface instead of the 3D subsurface. By adopting this new discretization, the parameters of unknown in the inversion and the model uncertainty can be reduced significantly. In the last section of this lecture, we will discuss the most updated geometric modeling and inversion method.
#gravity
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ICcc2NfB9Sk
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VIDEO
INTRO
introduction-60
Minerals Online Course
https://giladjames.com
Section: Introductory Chapter: Mineral Exploration from the Point of View of Geophysicists
Lesson: Introduction
Minerals.
This course is brought to you by Gilad James Mystery School. Learn more at Gilad James.com.
Introduction
Mineral exploration is vital in many countries to increase the income of their people, and their economy relies upon discovering minerals. The minerals excavated are iron, copper, gold, silver, molybdenum, zinc, coal, uranium, sulfide, tin, chromite, potash, etc. From the point of view of geophysicists, geophysical methods are playing an important role in mineral investigation, groundwater investigation and hydrocarbon exploration. Geophysical methods are grouped into two different kinds which are passive and active methods. Passive techniques measured the Earth’s natural fields as gravity, magnetic and self-potential (SP), while active methods distinguish variabilities of physical parameters in the Earth’s layers produced by nonnatural sources like seismic, electrical resistivity, induced polarization methods, etc. Various geophysical techniques rely upon different physical properties in the subsurface or deeper. The selection of a particular method relies on various parameters including cost, efficiency, accessibility, and type of application. In addition, a single choice of a geophysical method in any application occasionally provides poorly constrained results. So, a combination of two or more approaches certifies much more consistent results. This methodology is called integrated geophysical approach that ensures more prominent precision and higher consistency of results. It has to be emphasized that geophysical models are generally not unique regarding geometry (shape, size, and depth) of the buried structures. The spatial location of the buried sources and their depth can also be precisely assessed by some mathematical ways .
Geophysical methods: selection and objectives
The worth of geophysical techniques in mineral investigation relies on the variability of physical properties as well as on local geological environment, topography, etc. Each region tends to have its own distinct geophysical identity requiring the adoption of appropriate geophysical methods. Typically, more than one method is used in one survey, to decrease the ambiguity in deciphering the nature of unknown resources below the surface. Some important geophysical methods (Table 1) have been chosen in this lecture to demonstrate how we use these methods in mineral exploration.
Main natural geophysical methods and their essentials in mineral exploration.
#minerals
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=moxj64RO6K8
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DESCR
description-of-the-study-area-2
Hydro-Geomorphology Online Course
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Section: Computation of Hydro-geomorphologic Changes in Two Basins of Northeastern Greece
Lesson: Description of the study area
Hydro-Geomorphology.
This course is brought to you by Gilad James Mystery School. Learn more at Gilad James.com.
Introduction
Over millions of years, the Earth has gone through many changes which have shaped its current form and structure. From a dust ball according to nebular hypothesis, to the current form, the Earth has transformed a lot. Once an inhabitable place, during the Hadean time, our Earth has seen many processes over a long time of more than 4 billion years. Developmental stages which formed the current habitable world include both internal and external forces. The meteoritic impact, volcanic activities, and erosional activities of rivers, winds, glaciers, oceans, etc. along with the sea floor spreading and plate tectonic activities have been constantly working to shape the Earth as we see now. Many of these activities occur during a short interval, while some take millions of years to create various climatic, geologic, and geomorphic regimes. All of these never-ending processes are still continuously going on and shaping our Earth currently. The most notable of all these processes are geomorphic processes since they create the shape and form of the Earth as we see it now. Hence, the study of these geomorphic processes is critical to understand the phenomena and process that are occurring in nature.
Having its derivation from Greek words, γεω (Earth), μορφη (morph/form), and λογοϛ (discuss), geomorphology literally means “a discussion on Earth’s form.” Hence, it is the study of various features that are found on the Earth, such as mountains, hills, plains, rivers, moraines, cirques, sand dunes, beaches, spits, etc., that are created by various agents such as rivers, glaciers, wind, ocean, etc. Since the fourth century BC, many people have studied the formation of the Earth by relating to various observations in the field. Ancient Greeks and Romans such as Aristotle, Strabo, Herodotus, Xenophanes, and many others discussed about the origin of the valleys, formation of deltas, presence of seashells on mountains, etc. After observing the seashells on the top of the mountains, Xenophanes speculated that the surface of the Earth must have risen and fallen from time to time, thus creating river valleys and mountains (c.580–480 BC). After observing seashells on mountain top and vast expanses of sand, Aristotle (c.384–322 BC) suggested that the areas which are dryland now must be covered by sea in the past and those areas where sea is present now must have been dryland once. Hence, he proposed that land and sea change places. Traditionally, the history of the development of landscape was carried out by mapping the sedimentary and morphological features. For understanding the evolution of landscape, the golden rule, “the present is the key to the past,” has been followed. This rule assumes that the processes that are visible in action today must have occurred in the past also, which can be used to infer the reasons for formation of the landscape in the past. Hence, the past formation was mainly dependent on the relative information and aging method.
However, the word “geomorphology” was first coined and used between the 1870s and 1880s to describe the morphology of the surface of the Earth. But it was popularized by William Morris Davis who proposed the “geographical cycle” also known as “Davis cycle”. He proposed that the development of landscapes occurs as due to alternate action of uplift and denudation. He assumed that uplift occurs quickly and then the uplifted land mass erodes gradually to form the topography of the region. He hypothesized that upliftment is a quick action, whereas denudation is a time-taking process. Thus, creating high mountains and deep valleys showcases youth, mature, and old age stages of landform development. Though Davis cycle is considered as a classic work, but his hypothesis lacks a basic understanding that both upliftment and denudation occur simu
#hydro-geomorphology
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-b-nzrPmPNM
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FLOW
flow-direction-algorithm
Research on Soil Erosion Online Course
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Section: Terrain Analysis for Locating Erosion Channels: Assessing LiDAR Data and Flow Direction Algorithm
Lesson: Flow Direction Algorithm
Research on Soil Erosion.
This course is brought to you by Gilad James Mystery School. Learn more at Gilad James.com.
Introduction
Extreme hydrological phenomena of recent years have highlighted a well-known fact that it is necessary to pay greater attention to the problems of flood-prevention and soil erosion control on a large part of the Czech Republic. Case study areas are the most endangered territories. The case study area was selected as a case study mainly for its natural conditions and high risk of soil degradation and occurrence of flash floods. Relief, geomorphology, the present state of the complex system of soil properties, the types of agricultural farming practices and land use, are all contributing to accelerated soil erosion and runoff with all its negative impacts on the built-up areas.
The main soil degradation problems in the case study area are soil erosion caused by water, soil compaction and decline in organic matter. Soil erosion is fostered by i) soil degrading (intensive) farming practices such as up and down hill conventional tillage and other conventional agricultural operations on arable land, ii) frequent extreme hydrological events, and iii) a decreasing ability of soils for water retention (decline in organic matter and land conversion). Soil compaction is a problem due to intensive conventional farming on arable land (using heavy machinery). The decline in organic matter results from the constant soil erosion process. Main causes of decline in organic matter are conventional farming practices without using manure and other organic matter. Decline in organic matter causes a decrease of natural crop productivity of soil and decreases yield.
Great runoffs occur on these areas and transform into flood waves in watercourses. Forest grounds are also affected, especially in case of unsuitable transport, wood cut and growth make-up. Solving of the problems of territory protection from unfavourable and damaging effects of overland water flow must therefore begin in catchments areas and particularly during any interference with landscape. Appropriate conservation measures are required to prevent and reduce runoff and soil degradation resulting from intensive agriculture. The adoption of the most appropriate practices and optimisation the farming conservation system it is necessary to carry out analyses and evaluations of the erosion rate and the basic characteristics of runoff in given sub-catchments. This system of evaluation provides information about erosion and runoff risks plots and serves for decision making regarding soil conservation and flood prevention measures. The success of the system of soil conservation depends on suitable technical assistance and support from responsible state organisations (Ministry of Agriculture and Ministry of Environment), sufficient sources of information as well as the ability and willingness of land users to adopt soil conservation measures. The main motivation for farmers to apply soil conservation measures is the economic motivation through financial subsidies along with penalties for farmers if they fail to comply with the rules of the funding program.
Nevertheless, when introducing a soil erosion control and flood prevention measures in a certain watershed, best management practices are mostly to be able decrease of erosion rate but unable to restrict a surface runoff substantially. For that reason it is necessary to apply a whole system of soil conservation measures. In places with long slopes technical and biotechnical soil erosion control practices (primarily of linear character) are necessary. These technical measures are broad base terraces and channels in case study area. These biotechnical measures together with the implementation of grassed courses of concentrated surface runoff (grassed waterways) create an appropriate network of new hydrolines in the watershed. Biotechnical line elements of soil erosion control serve as permanent barriers or obstac
#research #on #soil #erosion
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KCar8UEpjiw
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TAXON
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Invertebrates Online Course
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Section: Chemoprotective Effect of Edible Gastropod, Xancus pyrum and Its Usefulness in the Amelioration of Cisplatin Induced Toxicity
Lesson: Taxonomic position of Xancus pyrum
Invertebrates.
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#invertebrates
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ecKeClXwPrY
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Cave Investigation Online Course
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Section: Characterization of Macro- and Micro-Geomorphology of Cave Channel from High-Resolution 3D Laser Scanning Survey: Case Study of Gomantong Cave in Sabah, Malaysia
Lesson: Geological setting and study area
Cave Investigation.
This course is brought to you by Gilad James Mystery School. Learn more at Gilad James.com.
Introduction
Caves are natural resources of complex dimensions that require intelligent planning and management for sustainability. They are naturally formed caverns that have played diverse roles for the human and animal communities. Investigations have revealed primordial use of caves on a short‐ or long‐term basis depending on the nature of activities they are used for or the circumstances that necessitate the usage. Caves have been used by man as shelter and for protection during wars. In many cultures, people bury their dead ones in caves occasionally, with their belongings and gift to help them in their spiritual journey. Man has used and continued to use caves for ritual and religious functions till this present time. Studies have also confirmed that caves were used for industrial purposes. For example, relict ceramic and metal deposits found in the French Bronze Age cave, Les Fraux, indicate that the ancient bronze workers used the cave as “industrial” workshop. It is also on record that Bedeilhac cave, in the French Pyreness, was used as aircraft factory during the post‐Industrial Revolution .
Human beings are rarely the first to explore caves. Caves are favourite natural habitat for varieties of animals, such as pigs, primates, elephants, hornbills, bats, birds, reptiles, amphibians and other organisms, some of which are endangered. Evidence of visitation of animals to some caves has been found in their dung and bones. For example, skeleton of a young elephant was found in a cave in Pahang, Malaysia. Likewise in Kitum caves, Kenya reported the regular visits of elephants to eat minerals from the rocks. For over 600 years, the Great Niah and Gomantong caves in Sarawak and Sabah, Malaysia Borneo, have been famous for sheltering large colonies of bats and swiftlet birds .
This age‐long interaction of man and animals in caves has resulted in enormous treasures within the confinement of the environment, albeit, it has also endangered the delicate cave ecosystem. In the interest of exploration, exploitation and preservation of the cave environment, man has devised several methods of surveying cave and tracking the resources therein in line with advances in technology of surveying instrumentation. Historically, earliest cave explorers used sketches to communicate or report their observations and findings in the cave. As time passed by, traditional instruments such as compass, clinometers and theodolites progressively became handy for cave mapping. By the turn of 1961, light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation (laser) began appearing on commercial markets for medical application and ranging. Subsequently, rangefinder and total station emerged with laser‐ranging capability, collecting single‐point xy(z) data at a time. Then, cave mapping became much easier and accurate than with compass and inclinometer; however, cave maps were still delivered in 2D space.
Today, sophisticated light‐scanning (or laser‐scanning) sensors that are capable of collecting several thousands to million points per seconds have taken over from the traditional methods, delivering caves in their true 3D geometry at unprecedented level of accuracy. Terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) survey has proven positive results in different applications such as archaeological investigations, 3D modelling and visualization, geomorphological analysis, passage stability and risk assessment, biological inventory and so on. A comprehensive review of the journey of laser scanning to caves including method, progress in hardware and software development for data collection and processing can be found in Ref. .
Awareness of the wealth of information conveyed in laser‐scanning data and the significant role high‐resolution 3D documentation can play in deepening the complete understanding of the cave motivates this present investi
#cave #investigation
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G6OKPYDnwOA
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Biological Resources of Water Online Course
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Section: Egg-Laying in the Cuttlefish Sepia officinalis
Lesson: Nidamental glands: a specificity in decabrachia cephalopods
Biological Resources of Water.
This course is brought to you by Gilad James Mystery School. Learn more at Gilad James.com.
Introduction
Phylogenetically, anatomically, and physiologically speaking, cephalopods are indeed mollusks. Yet, they possess special characteristics that distinguish them from other molluscan classes, especially the other two major classes, gastropods and bivalves.
First of all, they are the most mobile mollusks. They come in the form of pelagic species capable of performing large-amplitude horizontal and vertical migrations, like squid. Octopoda are in turn largely territorial and therefore sedentary, while the common cuttlefish Sepia officinalisexhibits a nectobenthic behavior associated with low or medium migration amplitude depending on the latitude.
Unlike other classes of molluscs, cephalopods possess a cephalopodium whose eight arms play an important role in predation but also in mating and egg-laying during the formation of the egg mass (Figure 1). These arms are also used for handling prey during catches by capping .
This ability to handle prey is quite unique in the marine environment and only found in primates and in some mammals. It is probably related to the exceptional development of the central nervous system (CNS). This CNS is protected by a cartilaginous skull and is located between the eyes, which are capable of forming an image.
Main successive steps of the life cycle of the cuttlefishSepia officinalis. (Photo credits: V. Cornet, J. Henry, C. Zatylny-Gaudin).
Egg-laying: description
The cuttlefish Sepia officinalisis a semelparous species with a life cycle that varies depending on the geographical location of the population: 15–16 months in the Mediterranean Sea versus 20–22 months in the English Channel. Spawning is associated with a stereotyped behavior. In aquaria, sexually mature females that have not spawned yet manipulate eggs laid earlier by conspecifics, while increasing their ventilation rate.
The different behavioral sequences leading to the laying of eggs are gradually repeated and eventually lead to the laying of the first egg (personal observation). A female can lay dozens of eggs at once, probably 150–200 eggs, which roughly corresponds to the storage capacity of the genital coelom, before a pause that allows it to replenish its stock of mature oocytes (stage V) through asynchronous gametogenesis. It also restores the capsular products secreted by the oviduct gland and the nidamental glands. Some females are then able to lay a second batch of eggs and probably several successive spawns. We do not know exactly how many eggs are laid before the programmed death of the animal. Fertility is probably quite variable among females and is very difficult to estimate.
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